2013년 12월 4일 수요일

About 'univ florida gainesville'|Greetings from Gainesville







About 'univ florida gainesville'|Greetings from Gainesville








I               must               consider               the               decline               from               the               immediate               and               progressive               distress               of               the               planter,               continuing               to               work               for               returns               inadequate               to               his               labor.

He               will               struggle               for               a               while               to               procure               the               means               of               subsistence,               and               of               satisfaction               to               his               creditors               and               consignees.

He               will               be               supported               from               time               to               time               by               the               latter,               through               liberality               or               from               interest               -               shooting               forth               another               arrow               to               follow               and               recover               the               arrow               lost,               till               the               quiver               is               exhausted,               or               the               archer               prudently               desists               from               further               attempt.

Sir               William               Young,               (planter               and               Governor               of               Tobago)               
               The               West               India               Common               Place               Book,               London,:               R.

Phillips,               1807.

48
               In               1928,               Lowell               J.

Ragatz               in               his               ground-breaking               book               The               Fall               of               the               Planter               Class               in               the               British               Caribbean,               1763               -               1833,               stated               the               case               for               Jamaica's               decline               during               and               after               the               American               Revolution               succinctly               as               being               a               combination               of               "a               wasteful               agricultural               system,               the               rivalry               of               newly-exploited               tropical               territories,               adherence               to               a               policy               of               restricted               trade               after               all               real               justification               for               it               had               ceased               to               exist,               vicious               fiscal               legislation               in               the               mother               country,               and               forty               years               of               intermittent               warfare."[i]
               The               abolition               of               slavery               by               the               British               in               1807               sparked               an               historical               debate               that               has               lasted               until               today               as               to               whether               economic               or               humanitarian               causes               were               at               the               root               of               the               demise               of               the               English               slave               trade.

The               argument               contained               herein               will               describe               the               story               of               Atlantic               Trade               and               its               disruption               by               the               American               Revolution.

This               disruption               exacerbated               the               decline               of               a               system               of               sugar               plantation               slavery               in               Jamaica               that               became               economically               outmoded.

While               it               was               eventually               replaced               by               industrial               capitalism               that               later               took               on               as               its               principles               free               labor               and               free               trade,               it               forJamaica's               glory               days               were               over.
               The               American               Revolution
               In               the               period               1731-75               sugar               production               rose               170               percent               and               the               index               of               London               sugar               prices               rose               as               well.[ii]               The               slave               trade               was               always               profitable               and               continued               to               be               so,               but               the               outbreak               of               war               spelled               the               steady               erosion               of               sugar               plantation               economics               and               profits.
               No               bigger               example               of               the               economic               importance               of               the               North               American-Caribbean               trade               can               be               found               than               the               acknowledgement               of               it               being               the               preeminent               bargaining               chip               between               the               American               Colonies               and               London.

The               first               Continental               Congress               tried               to               use               that               leverage               when               it               decided               to               close               the               ports               of               the               thirteen               colonies               to               British               Caribbean               produce               and               stop               exportation               to               the               islands               in               September               of               1774.
               The               threatened               outbreak               of               war               and               the               disruption               of               trade               with               the               American               colonies               worried               Jamaican               planters               considerably.

The               British               West               Indies               and               the               American               Colonies               were               of               similar               social               backgrounds               and               were               the               geographically               closest               major               British               colonial               trading               partners.

The               Jamaican               House               of               Assembly               knew               that               hard               times               were               coming               and               two               months               later,               while               professing               loyalty               to               the               king,               passed               a               petition               and               memorial               in               support               of               the               American               Colonies.[iii]               The               Connecticut               House               of               Representatives               passed               a               vote               of               thanks               in               response               as               well.[iv]               The               British               House               of               Lords               and               Parliament               were               generally               infuriated,               and               although               the               West               Indians               retained               some               influence               in               London,               they               had               lost               much               political               good               will.

Eventually               the               British               Caribbean               colonies,               fearing               for               their               slaves,               decided               to               wholeheartedly               cast               in               their               lot               with               London.

"Britain               was               relieved:               in               1773,               British               imports               from               Jamaica               alone               were               five               times               the               combined               imports               from               the               thirteen               colonies."[v]
               Unfortunately               the               Revolutionary               War               resulted               in               both               the               sugar               and               slave               trades               being               substantially               diminished.

The               British               Prohibitory               Act,               passed               soon               after               the               initial               skirmishes               of               the               war,               cut               off               the               traditional               supply               lines               from               the               American               colonies               and               "it               was               a               current               saying               at               the               time               that               the               British               ministry               had               not               only               lost               thirteen               colonies               but               eight               islands               as               well."[vi]               The               previously               high-flying               Atlantic               trade               system               was               in               a               shambles.
               Shortages               of               food               and               lumber               in               Jamaica               were               almost               immediate.

Official               British               policy               actively               discouraged               colonial               industry               and               as               a               result               Jamaican               manufacturing               was               almost               non-existent.[vii]               This               made               perfect               sense               as               the               mother               economy               wanted               to               supply               its               own               colonies.

Only               Jamaica               of               all               of               the               islands               had               extra               land               to               cultivate               for               food,               but               it               wasn't               ever               quite               enough.

The               loss               of               cheap               North               American               provisions               caused               flour               to               double               in               price               and               beef               prices               to               triple               in               the               war-time               period.[viii]               From               1763-75,               imports               to               the               British               West               Indies               from               America               were               ₤1,702,309               and               from               1776-83               they               were               only               ₤160,473.[ix]               In               a               period               of               low               demand,               the               cost               of               producing               sugar               rose               substantially               due               to               such               factors               as               food               shortages               that               also               led               to               increased               slave               mortality.[x]               In               consequence               of               a               scarcity               of               merchant               shipping,               rum               and               molasses               gave               way               to               sugar               being               increasingly               shipped               directly               home,               and               war-time               duties               had               the               effect               of               raising               prices               and               decreasing               demand               for               it.[xi]               In               fact               in               1779               Parliament               levied               a               tax               of               5               percent               on               the               Customs               and               Excise               duties               on               colonial               products               imported               directly               into               Britain;               the               duty               on               a               hundredweight               of               sugar               went               from               6s               4d               in               1775               to               6s               8d               in               1779;               then               up               5d               in               1780;               and               in               1781               it               was               increased               to               a               total               of               11s               8               ½               d.

A               year               later               it               was               raised               again               to               12s               3d.[xii]               Exports               declined               in               the               war               years               due               to               decreased               shipping               which               was               a               direct               result               of               increased               privateering,               a               number               of               hurricanes               and               spells               of               dry               weather.

Casks               of               sugar               from               Jamaica               to               England               in               1774-5               numbered               51,218,               in               1777-78               they               were               33,856               and               after               the               1780-81               hurricanes               only               30,282               casks               were               exported               between               1782               and               1783.[xiii]
               The               entry               of               France               into               the               war               in               1778               as               allies               of               the               Americans               only               worsened               Jamaica's               position.

They               lost               another               food               and               lumber               source               and               faced               the               very               real               possibility               of               attack.

The               planters               cited               below               constantly               bemoaned               the               need               for               defensive               troops               and               then               the               gnashed               their               teeth               at               the               subsequent               expense               of               feeding               and               housing               them               in               Kingston               and               other               towns.
               Historian               John               J.

McCusker's               data               conclusively               shows               that               the               rate               of               population               growth               in               the               islands               in               the               1780s               "was               much               slower               than               in               earlier               decades"               although               he               tries               to               explain               this               negative               economic               indicator               away               by               announcing               that               increased               productivity               and               output               obviates               the               data.[xiv]               It               seems               more               likely               that               Jamaican               planters               simply               described               a               declining               rate               of               growth               in               slaveholding               as               a               direct               result               of               less               commodity               demand               and               lower               prices.

The               rate               of               population               decline               was               factored               in               slaves               not               in               their               white               masters.

In               1778               there               were               205,261               slaves               to               18,420               whites               in               Jamaica,               and               by               1787               that               ratio               had               declined               to               210,894               slaves               to               25,000               whites.[xv]
               The               Planters'               View
               The               once               untouchably               wealthy               sugar               kings               were               now               experiencing               dwindling               returns               from               properties               that               were               increasingly               leveraged               by               creditors.

The               management               of               Jamaican               plantations               became               increasingly               difficult               because               of               the               nature               of               a               "near-monoculture               stage               of               production".[xvi]               The               only               deviations               from               sugar               production               were               cattle,               a               bit               of               rice               and               indigo,               and               some               plantation               produce               grown               for               food.

Two               different               sets               of               plantation               papers               offer               alternately               upbeat               and               fatalistic               accounts               which               allow               a               glimpse               into               the               thoughts               and               some               of               the               economic               issues               facing               Jamaican               planters.

They               are               indeed               predominately               pessimistic,               worrying               about               the               potential               for               disaster               before               and               during               the               war.
               Thomas               Thistlewood               (1721-1786)               was               a               British               estate               overseer               and               small               landowner               in               Western               Jamaica.

He               wrote               a               10,000               page               diary               which               has               now               become               the               basis               of               at               least               four               books.

He               became               the               overseer               of               the               Egypt               sugar               plantation               near               Savanna               la               Mar               in               the               early               1760s.

The               diary               is               extremely               useful               for               his               understanding               of               the               social               and               economic               world               around               him.

Mr.

Thistlewood               mentioned               lending               his               neighbor               Mr.

Cole               The               Present               State               of               Great               Britain               and               Her               North               American               Colonies,               in               August               of               1775.[xvii]               This               cross-lending               of               political               tracts               is               a               firm               indication               that               planters               took               active               note               of               the               outside               world               and               its               effect               on               them.

Throughout               his               narrative,               whatever               money               he               seemed               to               make               above               and               beyond               sugar               production,               was               put               down               to               his               ownership               of               "pens"               which               provided               periodic               cattle               sales               for               local               food.

By               early               September               of               1778,               Thistlewood               noted               that               in               Savannah               la               Mar               "Martial               law               was               proclaimed               in               the               town               last               Friday,               and               an               embargo               laid               on               all               ships               and               vessels,               even               to               a               plantain               boat."[xviii]               This               was               a               direct               result               of               France               joining               the               American               Colonies               in               the               war.

Only               a               week               later               heavy               winds               damaged               his               crops               and               his               first               journal               entry               for               September               18th               was:               "We               shall               nearly               have               a               famine."[xix]               The               cultivation               and               purchase               of               food               was               always               on               his               mind.

The               arrival               of               a               fleet               from               Cork               in               late               May               of               1779               was               a               major               celebratory               event:               Thistlewood               reports               buying               a               large               amount               of               food,               cloth,               stores               and               a               day               later,               61               lbs               of               tallow               candles.[xx]
               Weather               was               always               a               worry               for               planters               in               Jamaica               and               on               October               1st               1780               Thistlewood               described               the               worst               of               a               series               of               hurricanes               in               the               period:               "...then               my               dwelling               house               began               to               go,               and               about               sunset               the               wind               coming               from               the               south...being               then               I               think               at               its               height...tore               in               pieces               the               remainder               of               my               house               dispersing               it               in               different               ways."               The               next               day               he               related               that               the               "face               of               the               earth               looks               as               it               does               at               home               in               winter,               after               a               week's               Black               Frost."[xxi]               Although               Thistlewood               would               ultimately               rebuild,               1780               was               his               watershed,               and               his               health               and               that               of               his               plantation               steadily               declined               thereafter.
               Simon               Taylor               was               born               in               Jamaica               in               1740,               and               began               his               career               as               an               attorney               for               absentee               planters.

He               became               a               sugar               planter               in               his               own               right               and               at               his               death               in               1813               he               was               reputedly               the               richest               man               in               Jamaica.

He               was               active               in               Jamaican               politics               and               society,               being               Member               for               Kingston               in               the               Jamaican               Assembly,               1763-81,               Chief               Justice               of               the               Court               of               Common               Pleas               and               Lieutenant               Governor               of               Militia.

He               produced               a               trove               of               letters               written               and               received               between               1770               and               1835               relating               to               his               Jamaican               estates               and               business               interests.

The               letters               of               Simon               Taylor               show               a               tycoon               who               was               an               integral               part               of               the               domestic               politics               of               Jamaica.
               On               November               19th               1774               he               noted:               "Indeed               the               North               American               matters               give               me               real               Concern.

I               wish               they               were               settled               and               how               it               is               possible               for               them               to               be               settled               I               cannot               conceive."[xxii]               Taylor               oversaw               his               friend               Chaloner               Arcedekne's               estate               as               one               of               his               many               business               ventures.

In               a               long               January               1775               letter               to               his               absentee               landlord               friend               in               England               he               noted               "...I               am               sorry               that               the               Sugars               did               not               fetch               so               good               a               price               as               they               used               to."[xxiii]               Then               at               the               end               of               the               very               long               letter               he               acknowledges               the               economic               outcome               of               those               lower               sugar               prices:               "If               I               understand               right               the               intention               was               to               putt               on               20               Negroes               a               year               added               to               those               you               bought               of               Kelly               in               order               to               enable               you               to               keep               up               the               Estate               and               do               your               own               work.

The               fall               in               the               price               of               Sugars               made               me               defer               the               Purchase               untill               I               hear               from               you               and               the               money               saved               from               jobbing               will               help               pay               for               them               and               the               Negroes               may               be               your               own."[xxiv]               This               type               of               conservative               war-time               thinking               was               common               for               most               planters               in               Jamaica.

Taylor               describes               his               thoughts               to               Arcedekne               on               the               Americans               in               June               of               1775:
               "In               regard               to               our               Situation               I               am               in               great               hopes               that               good               will               arise               from               evil.

We               can               do               tolerable               well               without               America.

We               have               land               enough               for               provisions               lumber               etc.

except               white               oak               staves.

It               is               very               true               that               they               will               come               dearer               but               still               we               can               gett               them               but               then               the               Money               that               used               to               be               paid               the               Americans               will               rest               among               us               and               not               be               carryed               to               Hispaniola               to               purchase               Sugar               Molasses               and               Coffee               there               to               smuggle               into               America               to               the               ruin               of               our               Colonies."[xxv]
               Yet               in               July               of               the               same               year               he               noted               the               additional               duties               on               sugar               and               the               lack               of               demand               for               additional               slaves:
               "I               shall               be               sorry               to               find               that               the               Government               should               have               any               thoughts               of               a               4               ½               p.ct.

duty               on               our               produce...this               Country               would               at               this               present               juncture               be               absolutely               ruined               by               such               a               tax               first               from               the               low               price               of               our               produce               last               year               and               then               by               the               excessive               great               quantities               of               Negroes               that               have               been               imported               within               these               last               two               years               and               the               number               of               Bills               that               have               come               back               protested."[xxvi]
               And               then               in               September               of               1775               the               enormity               of               the               situation               hits               for               Taylor               who               sought               to               reassure               Arcedekne               in               London:
               "If               they               continue               their               non-importation               or               exportation               you               are               provided               for               two               years               with               Lumber,               and               need               be               under               no               apprehensions               about               Provisions               notwithstanding...that               you               have               able               Negroes               who               with               working               only               two               hours               in               his               Grounds               on               a               Sunday               morning               but               by               that               small               piece               of               labour               will               gett               as               much               provisions               as               will               satisfy               himself               and               family               for               a               week."               He               notes               that               he               will               not               buy               the               20               slaves               as               requested,               "untill               we               see               the               fate               of               the               American               disputes               and               what               effect               they               have               taken               on               the               Value               of               our               Produce."[xxvii]
               In               Jamaica,               plantation               owners               provided               little               food               to               slaves.

Planters               distributed               only               a               meager               protein               ration,               usually               salt               herring,               and               expected               slaves               to               obtain               the               rest               of               their               food               from               their               provision               grounds.

In               good               times               slaves               could               keep               any               profits.[xxviii]               But               Taylor               certainly               knew               that               there               were               often               bad               times               as               slaves               were               exponentially               susceptible               to               bad               weather               and               the               economic               downturns               of               their               owners.

There               is               no               doubt               that               "serious               reductions               in               food               arising               from               the               war               led               to               great               suffering               of               the               slave               population."[xxix]               Jamaica               was               better               off               than               most               of               the               islands,               but               it               simply               was               not               profitable               for               a               plantation               owner               to               allow               much               time               for               slaves               to               grow               produce               independently.[xxx]
               The               Jamaica               Mercury/Royal               Gazette
               Kingston,               Jamaica               had               at               least               two               weekly               newspapers,               all               being               small               four-page               issues               that               were               half               filled               with               advertisements               from               merchants               with               new               stock,               confiscated               cargos,               estate               sales,               slave               sales               or               rewards               for               the               return               of               runaway               slaves.

One               served               as               the               administration               organ,               the               other               for               the               opposition.[xxxi]               The               Jamaica               Mercury               generally               took               the               side               of               Crown               interests,               although               with               a               noticeable               parochial               bent.

News               of               the               American               Revolution               and               the               British               Parliament               were               copied               often               verbatim               from               other               sources,               both               British               and               American.

Letters               to               the               editor               could               be               heated               and               at               times               intemperate.

Practical               letters               on               economics               are               few               and               center               on               ship               captures               and               cargo               sales.

However,               On               June               5th               1779               a               planter               wrote               a               letter               to               the               editor:               "Within               the               last               four               days               a               scandalous               Imposition               has               take               place               in               the               Beef               Market               -               from               7               ½               the               butchers               have               dared               to               raise               the               price               of               beef               to               10               d               per               lb               in               direct               defiance               of               law."[xxxii]               Certainly               rising               prices               were               a               source               of               profound               annoyance.

For               our               purposes               indications               of               local               sentiment               can               also               be               seen               in               asides               taken               from               articles               such               as               this               editorial               on               "Lord               North               and               the               Bungling               of               the               Budget"               on               May               3rd               1779:               "...besides               the               enormous               expense               incurred               by               going               on               with               the               American               War,               which               has               destroyed               all               trade               and               credit..."[xxxiii]               And               a               follow               up               on               the               same               issue               with               Lord               North               debating               Mr.

Fox               in               Parliament,               who               queried:               "Was               the               absurd               war               with               America               going               on,               or               was               it               to               be               relinquished?

Do               you               intend               to               give               up               America?"[xxxiv]
               Over               the               course               of               1779               and               into               1780               the               paper               continued               a               series               on               the               history               of               the               American               Revolution.

Anonymously               signed               letters               were               printed               in               response               and               many               suggest               lackluster               support:               "It               is               the               behaviour               of               the               British               Nation               in               general               [I               wish]               to               arraign;               inconsistency               having               marked               every               step               of               their               conduct               since               the               commencement               of               this               ominous               war."[xxxv]               As               mentioned,               the               paper               was               royalist,               and               as               such,               this               editorial               of               April               27th               1780               strikes               a               surprisingly               parochial               cry               for               peace:
               If               we               are               at               war               in               America,               we               have               not               the               burden               if               a               continental               war,               that               sink,               in               which               our               treasure               has               disappeared               without               any               hope               of               return.

We               may               suffer               some               losses               now,               for               what               people               are               uniformly               successful               in               war?

The               profits               and               losses               of               war               can               only               be               eliminated               on               the               day               which               concludes               a               peace.

Let               us               be               unanimous               that               day               cannot               be               long               distant,               disadvantageous,               or               dishonorable."[xxxvi]
               Summary
               A               combination               of               the               American               War               and               usurious               British               policy               teamed               up               to               greatly               distress               the               Jamaican               planters.

There               were               periods               of               slave               famine:               a               committee               of               the               House               of               Assembly               in               1787               found               that               of               a               slave               population               of               256,000               more               than               15,000               slaves               had               died               of               malnutrition,               some               historians               place               the               number               as               high               as               24,000.[xxxvii]               Additionally,               "by               the               end               of               the               1780s               the               value               of               many               West               Indian               plantations               had               declined               significantly."[xxxviii]               The               plantation               system               was               showing               signs               of               age               and               weakness.

The               Caribbean               system               of               slavery               could               not               adjust               to               the               new               economic               system,               and               was               destined               to               be               eclipsed               by               the               Second               British               Empire.

The               war               created               a               new               commercial               system               that               was               simply               not               as               lucrative               for               sugar               producers.

The               economy               never               adjusted               and               decline               was               inevitable.

Incapable               of               evolving               to               meet               the               dynamism               of               finance               capitalism,               the               old               system               lost               its               relative               profitability               and               sources               of               capital               gravitated               toward               new               technology               and               mass               production               techniques               further               dooming               slavery               economics.
               Yet               some               historians               such               as               Kenneth               Morgan               hold               out               that               plantation               slavery               was               still               quite               profitable.

They               cite               soil               exhaustion               as               a               "red               herring"               and               technical               improvements               increasing               productivity               in               Jamaica               "by               35               percent               between               1750               and               1830,               allowing               owners               to               achieve               economies               of               scale."[xxxix]               While               there               was               indeed               an               overall               West               Indian               economic               expansion               after               1783,               it               did               not               help               the               island               of               Jamaica               in               any               significant               way,               and               better               economies               of               scale               creating               higher               production               numbers               did               not               obviate               British               tax               policies,               higher               production               costs               and               most               of               all               lower               prices               for               sugar,               which               led               to               increasing               levels               of               plantation               debt.

"Several               estimates               were               made               at               the               end               of               the               eighteenth               century               showing               the               high               cost               of               slave               labor               and               illustrating               the               improbability               of               retrieving               investments               in               this               activity."[xl]               The               debt               situation               deteriorated               to               such               an               extent               that               creditors               couldn't               sell               properties               and               so               debt-ridden               planters               were               forced               to               continue               on               running               estates               they               only               nominally               owned.
               The               post-war               sugar               monoculture               still               depended               on               imported               food               and               supplies               to               function.

Imports               did               increase,               but               remained               expensive               on               a               relative               basis
               particularly               if               bought               through               the               French-held               islands.

This               new               system               for               Jamaica               in               which               American               ships               could               only               indirectly               trade,               had               "an               adverse               effect
               on               the               viability               of               the               sugar               colonies               -               especially               the               slaves               in               those               colonies."[xli]               From               an               economic               point               of               view,               the               burden               of               debt               for               planters               was               really
               a               variable               based               on               the               movement               of               commodity               prices.

Unfortunately,               world               sugar               prices               continued               to               decline               both               during               and               after               the               American               Revolution.
               If               the               real               cost               of               doing               business               was               steadily               rising               and               commodity               prices               concurrently               falling,               the               inevitable               must               be               then               assumed.

Jamaica's               days               of
               immense               wealth               were               over.
               Endnotes
               [i]               Lowell               J.

Ragatz,               The               Fall               of               the               Planter               Class               in               the               British               Caribbean,               1763-1833;               A               Study               in               Social               and               Economic               History.

(New               York,               London:               The               Century               Company,               1928)               vii
               [ii]               Richard               Sheridan,               "The               Wealth               of               Jamaica               in               the               Eighteenth               Century"               in               Economic               History               Review,               (Vol.

18,               No.2,               1965)               296
               [iii]               Richard               Sheridan,               "The               Jamaican               Slave               Insurrection               Scare               of               1776               and               the               American               Revolution"               in               The               Journal               of               Negro               History,               (Vol.

61,               No.

3,               Jul.,               1976)               290
               [iv]               Ragatz,               142-3
               [v]               Hugh               Thomas,               The               Slave               Trade.

(New               York:               Simon               and               Schuster,               1997)               284
               [vi]               Eric               Williams,               Capitalism               and               Slavery.

(Chapel               Hill:               Univ.

of               N.

Carolina               Press,               1944)               22
               [vii]               Ragatz,               16
               [viii]               Richard               Sheridan,               "The               Crisis               of               Slave               Subsistence               in               the               British               West               Indies               before               and               after               the               American               Revolution"               in               William               and               Mary               Quarterly,               (3rd               Ser.,               Vol.

33,               No.

4,               Oct.

1974)               622
               [ix]               John               J.

McCusker,               "Growth,               Stagnation,               or               Decline?

The               Economy               of               the               British               West               Indies,               1763-1790"               in               Hoffman,               Ronald.

(ed.)               The               Economy               of               Early               America:               The               Revolutionary               Period,               1763-1790.

(Charlottesville:               University               Press               of               Virginia,               1988)               citing               Jamaica               Board               of               Trade               Papers,               299
               [x]               Selwyn               Carrington,               The               Sugar               Industry               and               the               Abolition               of               the               Slave               Trade,               1775-1810.

(Gainesville:               University               Press               of               Florida,               2002)               Carrington               is               West               Indian-born,               and               has               the               best               modern               support               for               the               decline               argument.
               [xi]               Ragatz,               165
               [xii]               For               a               detailed               examination               of               the               slowing               of               sugar               exports               and               the               rise               in               taxation               see               Selwyn               Carrington,               The               Sugar               Industry               and               the               Abolition               of               the               Slave               Trade,               1775-1810.

(Gainesville:               University               Press               of               Florida,               2002)               51-58
               [xiii]               Carrington,               55
               [xiv]               McCusker,               291
               [xv]               Sheridan,               "Wealth               of               Jamaica"               297
               [xvi]               Richard               B.

Sheridan,               Sugar               and               Slavery;               An               Economic               History               of               the               British               West               Indies,               1623-1775.

(Baltimore:               Johns               Hopkins               University               Press,               1974)               378-79
               [xvii]               Douglas               Hall,               In               Miserable               Slavery               -               The               Papers               of               Thomas               Thistlewood               in               Jamaica               1750-86.

(London;               New               York:               Macmillan,               1989)               239
               [xviii]               Ibid.,               259
               [xix]               Ibid.,               260
               [xx]               Hall,               265
               [xxi]               Ibid.,               277
               [xxii]               Betty               Wood,               and               T.R.

Lynn               Clayton,               "The               Letters               of               Simon               Taylor               of               Jamaica               to               Chaloner               Arcedekne,               1765-1775"               in               Martin,               (ed.)               in               Travel,               Trade,               and               Power               in               the               Atlantic,               1765-1884.

Cambridge,               UK;               New               York,               NY,               USA:               Cambridge               University               Press               for               the               Royal               Historial               Society,               2002.

138
               [xxiii]               Ibid.,               139
               [xxiv]               Wood,               146
               [xxv]               Ibid.,               148
               [xxvi]               Ibid.,               149
               [xxvii]               Ibid.,               152
               [xxviii]Roderick               A.

McDonald,               The               Economy               and               Material               Culture               of               Slaves:               Goods               and               Chattels               on               the               Sugar               Plantations               of               Jamaica               and               Louisiana.

(Baton               Rouge:               Louisiana               State               University               Press,               1993)               18
               [xxix]               Jacob               M               Price,               "Reflections               on               the               Economy               of               Revolutionary               America"               in               Hoffman,               Ronald.

(ed.)               The               Economy               of               Early               America:               The               Revolutionary               Period,               1763-1790.

(Charlottesville:               University               Press               of               Virginia,               1988)               319
               [xxx]               Sheridan,               "Crisis               of               Slave               Subsistence"               621
               [xxxi]               David               Douglass               and               Alexander               Aikman,               both               born               in               Scotland,               were               printers               in               Charleston,               South               Carolina               when               the               American               colonies               revolted.

Having               very               pronounced               loyalist               sympathies,               they               left               America               and               established               themselves               in               Jamaica               writing               the               Jamaica               Mercury,               which               after               1780               was               called               the               Royal               Gazette.
               [xxxii]Jamaican               Mercury,               (Vol.

1,               No.

9,               June               5,               1779)
               [xxxiii]Jamaican               Mercury,               (Vol.

1,               No.2,               May               3,               1779)
               [xxxiv]               Ibid.,               (Vol.

1,               No.6,               May               29,               1779)
               [xxxv]               Ibid.
               [xxxvi]Royal               Gazette,               (Vol.

11,               No.

54,               April               27,               1780)
               [xxxvii]               Sheridan,               "Crisis               of               Slave               Subsistence"               632
               [xxxviii]               Carrington,               285
               [xxxix]               See               Kenneth               Morgan,               Slavery,               Atlantic               Trade               and               the               British               Economy,               1660-1800.

(Cambridge:               Cambridge               University               Press,               2000)               51,               for               a               thorough               discussion               refuting               the               decline               theory.

He               joins               others               such               as               Seymour               Drescher               in               his               book               Econocide.
               [xl]               Carrington,               279
               [xli]               Sheridan,               "Crisis               of               Slave               Subsistence"               641






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    When               applying               to               many               Florida               colleges               and               universities,               you               may               not               have               to               submit               your               SAT               scores               or               ACT               scores.

    Standardized               test               score               submissions               are               optional               at               these               Florida               schools.

    American               College               of               Pre-hospital               Medicine               in               Navarre,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               when               applying               to               this               distance               school.
                   American               Intercontinental               University               in               Fort               Lauderdale,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application.
                   Angley               College               in               Deland,               
                   FL               
                   SAT               or               ACT               scores               are               only               used               for               academic               placement,               not               as               a               basis               for               admission.
                   Art               Institute               of               Ft.

    Lauderdale,               FL               
                   Must               submit               another               test               score               (ACT,               COMPASS,               APAT,               TABE,               WAIS,               ASSET)               if               not               submitting               SAT               scores.
                   Beacon               College               in               Rock               Ledge,               FL               
                   Must               submit               another               test               score               (ACT,               COMPASS,               APAT,               TABE,               WAIS,               ASSET)               if               not               submitting               SAT               scores.
                   Carlos               Albizu               University               in               Miami,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application.
                   City               College               of               Ft.

    Lauderdale,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application.
                   DeVry               University               in               Miramar               &               Orlando,               FL               
                   SAT               or               ACT               scores               may               be               required               if               minimum               GPA               is               not               met.

    Must               submit               another               test               score               (ACT,               COMPASS,               APAT,               TABE,               WAIS,               ASSET)               if               not               submitting               SAT               scores.
                   Edward               Waters               College               in               Jacksonville,               FL               
                   Standardized               test               scores               may               be               required               if               minimum               GPA               is               not               met.
                   Everglades               College               in               Fort               Lauderdale,               FL               
                   Must               submit               another               test               score               (ACT,               COMPASS,               APAT,               TABE,               WAIS,               ASSET)               if               not               submitting               SAT               scores.
                   Florida               Christian               College               in               Kissimmee,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application               to               this               religious               college.
                   Florida               Memorial               College               in               Miami,               FL               
                   Standardized               test               scores               are               only               used               for               academic               placement,               not               as               a               basis               for               admission.
                   Florida               Metropolitan               University               throughout               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application.

    Campuses               in               Brandon,               Jacksonville               
                   Lakeland,               Melbourne,               North               Orlando,               Orange               Park,               Pinellas               /               Clearwater,               Pompano               Beach,               South               Orlando,               and               Tampa.
                   Hobe               Sound               Bible               College               in               Hobe               Sound,               FL               
                   SAT               or               ACT               scores               are               only               used               for               academic               placement,               not               as               a               basis               for               admission               to               this               religious               college.
                   Hodges               University               in               Naples,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application.
                   International               Academy               of               Design               and               Technology               in               Orlando               &               Tampa,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application.
                   International               Fine               Arts               College               in               Miami,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application.
                   ITT               Technical               Institute               throughout               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application.

    Campuses               in               Jacksonville,               Maitland,               Miami,               and               Tampa.
                   Johnson               &               Wales               University               in               North               Miami,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application.
                   Jones               College               in               Jacksonville,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application.
                   Remington               College               in               Tampa,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application.
                   Ringling               College               of               Art               and               Design               in               Sarasota,               FL               
                   Standardized               test               scores               may               be               required               if               minimum               GPA               is               not               met.
                   Rollins               College               in               Winter               Park,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application.
                   Saint               Thomas               University               in               Miami,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application               to               this               religious               college.
                   Schiller               International               University               in               Dunedin,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application.
                   South               University               in               West               Palm               Beach,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application.
                   Southeastern               College               of               the               Assemblies               of               God               in               Lakeland,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application               to               this               religious               college.
                   Talmudic               College               of               Florida               in               Miami               Beach,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application               to               this               religious               college.
                   Yeshiva               Gedolah               Rabbinical               College               in               Miami               Beach,               FL               
                   No               test               scores               are               required               to               be               submitted               with               admission               application               to               this               religious               college.
                   Source:               www.fairtest.org/university/optional/state






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